Ghana Agribusiness Playbook← Beef Cattle
A veterinary team vaccinating cattle in a northern Ghanaian crush pen
Beef Cattle · Pillar 03

Disease, Health and Biosecurity

Disease raises the cost of every beast, and vaccines exist for the main killers. Farmers in three districts lost a median of one ruminant in ten to disease in 2021, yet only 16 percent of surveyed herds were vaccinated against CBPP or PPR, so vaccine delivery is the opening.
Disease, health and biosecurity · Pillar 03

Livestock farmers surveyed in three Ghanaian districts reported losing a median of one ruminant in ten to disease in 2021, and vaccines exist for several of the main killers.1 Foot-and-mouth, contagious bovine pleuropneumonia, trypanosomiasis, brucellosis and anthrax all circulate, and each one lowers the value of the herd.

The weak spot is delivery: only 16 percent of 350 surveyed ruminant herds were vaccinated against CBPP or PPR in 2021.2 When about 180 cattle died after a botched vaccine mix in North Gonja in 2025, the vaccine had been bought outside the official system and was reportedly mixed and given by a herder from Burkina Faso.34 That weakness is the opening. The disease burden hides three businesses: diagnostics, cold-chain vaccine delivery and biosecurity advice.

A timber cattle crush in a northern Ghana savannah kraal, a single zebu bull held steady in the narrow race while a herder in a worn shirt steadies its head, dust hanging in low afternoon light, thorn fencing and dry grass behind, documentary photograph, warm earthy tones, natural light, no text, no watermark
Disease raises the cost of every beast
Vaccines exist for the main killers: the weak spot is delivery.
~1 in 10
ruminants lost to disease in 2021, the median in three surveyed districts1
5
diseases do most of the damage, each in a different way
16%
of 350 surveyed herds vaccinated against CBPP or PPR in 20212

🐄 The disease burden is a cost 🐄

Key disease figures for Ghana's cattle: prevalence, outbreak mortality and annual herd loss
Figure 8 Key disease figures for Ghana’s cattle: prevalence, outbreak mortality and annual herd loss (each bar a different measure)

Sources: Odoom et al.; World Organisation for Animal Health; Ofori et al.; Tasiame et al.; Nuvey et al.67891

What this shows

Every major cattle disease in Ghana is preventable or manageable, yet together they take about one animal in ten a year. The burden is a cost, and the cost is the opening for animal-health services.

Livestock farmers in three districts reported losing a median of 10 percent of their ruminant herds to disease in 2021,1 and animal disease costs Africa on the order of US$9 billion a year, about 6 percent of the value of Africa’s livestock sector.5 In money terms: at the median rate, a herd of a hundred loses about ten animals a year to disease.

Beneath the deaths sit slower losses that never reach a mortality table: the beast that grows poorly, the cow that fails to conceive, the animal held back from market because a movement ban is in force. Disease lowers the value of every beast in Ghana, whether it dies or not, and vaccination, which gave a positive return in most African studies reviewed by Nuvey et al.,5 can cut that loss. The burden is real and expensive, and much of it can be prevented, which is why it is a market.

10%
median share of ruminant herds lost to disease in 2021, three districts1
US$9 bn
a year, what animal disease costs Africa, about 6 percent of the sector’s value5

What this means. Every preventable death is a unit of demand for prevention. If herds lose a median of about 10 percent a year to disease and vaccination carries a positive return, then the gap between the disease that exists and the disease that could be stopped is the size of the animal-health market nobody is fully serving. The business here sells the herd owner a cheaper way to stop the loss before it happens, then proves it worked.

🐄 The five diseases that circulate, and what each one does 🐄

Five diseases do most of the damage, and each hurts in a different way, so each needs a different response. Foot-and-mouth disease is endemic and Ghana does not vaccinate routinely against it: in outbreaks across 14 districts in nine regions from July to December 2024, 66 percent of sampled cattle carried antibodies to the virus, and serotypes O, A and SAT2 were all circulating.6 Foot-and-mouth rarely kills a mature animal, but it does something almost as costly: the moment it is confirmed, animals cannot legally move and a market can close.

Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia kills 30 to 80 percent of animals in a severe outbreak and is endemic in 22 African countries; the Feed Ghana Programme targets 70 percent CBPP vaccination in target regions, although WOAH puts effective herd immunity at 80 percent, reached only by vaccinating twice a year.710 Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia is the killer of the group, and coverage sits far below any target: only 16 percent of 350 surveyed herds were vaccinated against CBPP or PPR in 2021,2 and the Feed Ghana livestock component that carries the national vaccination plan had not started by August 2026.11 Trypanosomiasis, spread by the tsetse fly, is widespread: in a two-year study of 36 cattle at Accra and Adidome, trypanosome DNA was found in 59 to 73 percent of repeated blood samples, mostly at low levels.8 Trypanosomiasis makes the breed choice of Pillar 1 a matter of survival: in the tsetse belt the susceptible zebu sickens where the trypanotolerant local animal holds.

Bovine brucellosis, a zoonosis that cuts fertility, was found in 22.9 percent of 315 cattle tested in North Tongu, and in 10.1 percent of their handlers.9 Brucellosis empties a calving record rather than filling a mortality table; it cuts fertility and also passes to the people who handle the animals. Anthrax, the fifth, is treated below through the September 2025 event at Dissah in North Gonja, where about 180 cattle died within 48 hours of being given an anthrax vaccine improperly mixed with CBPP vaccine.3

A blue and black cloth tsetse trap staked in riverine scrub beside a cattle watering point in Ghana, flies drifting toward the fabric, a small herd of trypanotolerant N'Dama cattle grazing in the middle distance, dappled shade and green gallery forest, documentary photograph, warm earthy tones, natural light, no text, no watermark
The fly decides the breed
The tsetse belt: where the susceptible zebu sickens and the trypanotolerant animal holds.
66%
of sampled cattle seropositive for FMD in 2024 outbreaks, serotypes O, A and SAT2
30 to 80%
CBPP mortality in a severe outbreak
59 to 73%
of repeated blood samples carried trypanosome DNA at two study sites
Table 4: The five diseases that tax the herd, read for the decision they force
DiseaseWhat it doesHow it spreadsHow to manage it, and the opening
Foot-and-mouth (FMD)Rarely kills adults, but shuts movement and trade; endemic and not routinely vaccinated; 66 percent seropositive in 2024 outbreaks, serotypes O, A and SAT2Highly contagious, animal to animal and via contactVaccination and movement control; the opening is diagnostics and clean, verified stock
Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP)The killer: 30 to 80 percent mortality in a severe outbreak; endemic regionallyClose contact, especially in herded and traded animalsVaccination twice a year; 16 percent of surveyed herds vaccinated in 2021 against a 70 percent Feed Ghana target; the gap is vaccine reach, cost and farmer knowledge
TrypanosomiasisWastes and kills susceptible cattle; trypanosome DNA in 59 to 73 percent of blood samples at two study sitesThe tsetse fly, across much of the countryTrypanotolerant breeds (Pillar 1), fly control, screening; the opening is tsetse control services
BrucellosisCuts fertility and passes to people; about 23 percent in North TonguBirth fluids, milk; a zoonosis handlers catchTest-and-cull, hygiene at calving; the opening is herd-level diagnostics
AnthraxSudden mass death; a One Health killer of animals and peopleSoil spores, and eating or handling dead stockAnnual vaccination done properly, safe carcass disposal; the gap is vaccine handling

Sources: Odoom et al.; World Organisation for Animal Health; Ministry of Food and Agriculture; Nuvey, Fink et al.; Ofori et al.; Tasiame et al.; Herald Ghana.67102893

MARKET SIGNAL: THE CONSTRAINT IS DIAGNOSIS AND DELIVERY. Behind almost every disease sits the same missing service: a way to tell a healthy animal from a sick one, and a way to get a working vaccine into it. The binding constraint is diagnostics and delivery. A business that can screen a herd cheaply, or move a potent vaccine to it reliably, sells into all five markets at once, because the failure that lets each disease spread is the same failure.

🐄 Anthrax and North Gonja: the capacity gap in one event 🐄

One event in 2025 shows the problem clearly. On 4 September 2025 cattle at Dissah in North Gonja were given an anthrax spore vaccine bought in Nigeria, mixed at one bottle to 200 doses of CBPP vaccine and reportedly administered by a herder from Burkina Faso. Sixty-five cattle died within 24 hours and about 180 of the 400 in four kraals within 48 hours, with post-mortem signs consistent with anthrax; laboratory results from Pong-Tamale were still awaited when the report was published.34

Anthrax is endemic in the north and recurs: an outbreak in May and June 2023 killed 100 animals in seven districts of the Upper East Region, and responders including Zipline and Cowtribe helped vaccinate 16,800 cattle within weeks.12 Because it also kills people who handle or eat infected stock, it is a One Health emergency as much as a livestock one. The Dissah deaths were self-inflicted. The vaccine came from outside the official supply and was mixed and given by an untrained herder, which shows how easily unregulated vaccine reaches herds where no trained vaccinator is at hand. The veterinary service then banned movement and slaughter around Daboya, buried carcasses and planned ring vaccination within 5 kilometres, with a proposed budget of GH¢32,880.3

A field vaccination team working cattle in the northern savannah
The service the sector is short of
A field vaccination team working cattle in the northern savannah: the animal-health service the sector is short of.
65
cattle dead within 24 hours at Dissah, September 2025
~180 of 400
dead within 48 hours of the mixed anthrax and CBPP vaccine
🐄 The Opening: the gap between a working vaccine and the animal 🐄
01

Cold-chain vaccine delivery. The North Gonja failure was a handling failure, and handling is a service. A venture that moves potent, correctly stored vaccine to the herd, and trains the person who administers it, attacks one of the points where prevention breaks down (Pillar 8, Cowtribe).

02

Field and pen-side diagnostics. Much of the loss comes from not knowing what an animal has until it is dead. Cheap, fast herd-side testing turns a guess into a decision and is the input every other health service needs.

03

Biosecurity and vaccination advisory. Safe carcass disposal, movement discipline and a correct vaccination calendar are knowledge the herd owner will pay for once a loss like North Gonja is fresh. The teachable moment is also the sellable one.

🐄 Why prevention fails: thin veterinary reach, cost and weak vaccine handling 🐄

From cold store to correctly injected animal: the two steps that break
Figure 9 From cold store to correctly injected animal: the two steps that break

Sources: Nuvey et al.; Nuvey, Fink et al.; The Herald Ghana523

What this shows

The vaccine works, but protection depends on every link holding; in Ghana the documented breaks are reach, cost and farmer knowledge, and unsafe mixing by untrained vaccinators, as at North Gonja in 2025, and each is a service opening.

If prevention works and pays, why does the loss persist? Because the delivery system is thin. In Ghana only 16 percent of 350 surveyed ruminant herds were vaccinated against CBPP or PPR in 2021; farmers named limited knowledge, cost and slow access to veterinary officers, a median 8 kilometres away, as the barriers.2 Across Africa, where vaccination fails in the field the usual cause is lost potency through heat, cold-chain failure or a strain mismatch.5 Ghana has had no funded national tsetse-control campaign since the African Development Bank-supported project ended in 2012; the Veterinary Services Directorate keeps a tsetse and trypanosomiasis control unit, but over 90 percent of the country’s land is tsetse-infested and control is left mostly to individual owners.1314

Public veterinary reach is stretched thin across a herd that is mobile, informal and concentrated far from the laboratories. The North Gonja mix made that thinness visible. For the entrepreneur that is good news dressed as bad: the capacity gap is wide, well documented and, because vaccination carries a positive return, worth closing.

The interior of a small district veterinary cold store in northern Ghana, a technician in a green coat lifting a tray of vaccine vials from a kerosene fridge, a cool box and ice packs on the bench beside a handwritten temperature log, worn concrete walls, documentary photograph, warm earthy tones, natural light falling through an open doorway, no text, no watermark
Link one: keeping it cold
Lost potency: where the vaccine fails before it ever reaches a beast.
A veterinary field worker crouched pen-side beside a restrained zebu cow in a Ghanaian kraal, drawing a blood sample into a tube while a colleague reads a rapid test strip laid on a metal field case, herders watching from the fence rail, dry season dust and low golden light, documentary photograph, warm earthy tones, natural light, no text, no watermark
Link two: reading the animal
The missing input: a way to tell a healthy animal from a sick one.

What this means. A weak delivery system is also an unserved market with demand already there. The herd owner already wants the animal to live; the disease is already there; the vaccine already works. What is missing sits entirely in the middle: getting a potent dose, correctly handled, into the right animal at the right time, and showing it was done. That middle is Cowtribe's business (Pillar 8), and few private firms serve it.

🐄 The risks that sit inside the disease burden 🐄

A handler holding a cow's mouth open to check for foot-and-mouth lesions

Foot-and-mouth and CBPP outbreaks

VERY HIGH
What it is

The two endemic herd diseases hit differently: foot-and-mouth shuts movement and trade the moment it is confirmed, while CBPP simply kills, taking 30 to 80 percent of animals in a severe outbreak. Either can empty a finishing pen or freeze a corridor.

Evidence

FMD is endemic and unvaccinated, with 66 percent of cattle seropositive in 2024 outbreaks across nine regions and serotypes O, A and SAT2 circulating;6 CBPP kills 30 to 80 percent in severe outbreaks, and only 16 percent of surveyed herds were vaccinated against CBPP or PPR in 2021, against a Feed Ghana target of 70 percent in target regions.7210

Who it hits

Finishers and traders holding grouped animals, and anyone whose business depends on being able to move stock to market on a fixed date.

How to manage it, and the opening

Vaccinate to the target, buy verified stock, and keep animals in defined groups so an outbreak can be contained. The opening inside the risk is reliable vaccine delivery and diagnostics.

Veterinary workers in scrubs and gloves handling a cow during an anthrax vaccination round

Anthrax and botched vaccination

VERY HIGH
What it is

Anthrax kills suddenly and in numbers, and because it passes to people who handle or eat dead stock it is a human emergency too. Worse, the response itself can fail: a mishandled vaccine can kill the animals it was meant to save.

Evidence

At Dissah in North Gonja in September 2025, 65 cattle died within 24 hours and about 180 within 48 hours of being given an anthrax vaccine improperly mixed with CBPP vaccine by an unlicensed herder.34

Who it hits

Herd owners in the endemic north, the field workers who vaccinate, and the households that butcher or eat fallen animals.

How to manage it, and the opening

Vaccinate annually with correctly stored and separately administered vaccine, never mix products, dispose of carcasses safely and treat it as One Health. The opening is trained cold-chain delivery and safe-handling advisory.

A biting fly resting on the back of a grazing animal in the tsetse belt

Trypanosomiasis and the tsetse belt

HIGH
What it is

The tsetse fly makes much of Ghana hostile to a susceptible animal, wasting and killing the very zebu an entrant buys for its size. With no funded national tsetse campaign since 2012, the disease is managed mostly one animal at a time.

Evidence

Trypanosome DNA was found in 59 to 73 percent of repeated blood samples from 36 cattle at two southern sites, over 90 percent of Ghana’s land is tsetse-infested, and there has been no funded national control campaign since 2012.81314

Who it hits

Entrants who choose an animal on size without checking the fly pressure on their site, and anyone siting a feedlot inside the belt.

How to manage it, and the opening

Match the breed to the fly (Pillar 1), add trap-and-target fly control and routine screening. The opening is a tsetse-control and screening service in a space the state serves thinly.

A herd owner standing over a cow lying down after a disease event

Disease wipes out the herd

HIGH
What it is

Because most keeping is extensive, low-input and unvaccinated, a single disease event can remove years of accumulated wealth in days. For a store-of-wealth herd, that die-off empties a savings account outright.

Evidence

Surveyed ruminant farmers lost a median of 10 percent of their herds to disease in 2021, and animal disease costs Africa nearly US$9 billion a year.15

Who it hits

Every herd owner holding cattle as savings rather than insuring or vaccinating them, and the finisher whose capital sits in living animals.

How to manage it, and the opening

Treat prevention as the cheapest insurance there is: a vaccination calendar, basic biosecurity and verified sourcing. The opening is packaging prevention as an affordable subscription, exactly the Cowtribe model.

🐄 Key takeaways 🐄
01

Disease raises the cost of every beast: surveyed herds lose a median of about 10 percent a year to disease, and animal disease costs Africa around US$9 billion a year.

02

Five diseases do the damage in different ways: FMD shuts trade, CBPP kills, trypanosomiasis wastes the susceptible animal, brucellosis cuts fertility, and anthrax kills animals and people alike.

03

The constraint is diagnosis and delivery. The vaccines largely exist; what fails is getting a potent dose correctly into the right animal.

04

North Gonja 2025 shows the gap: an anthrax vaccine mixed with CBPP vaccine and given by an unlicensed herder was followed by about 180 cattle deaths within 48 hours.

05

That gap is the opening. Diagnostics, cold-chain vaccine delivery and biosecurity advisory are businesses with demand already shown by the loss they would prevent.

Where this connects. The trypanotolerance that carries the herd through the tsetse belt was introduced in Pillar 1, and the disease map here shows that breed choice only partly answers it. The extensive, unvaccinated keeping regime that lets disease spread is the production system of Pillar 4, and medicine, which took about 40 percent of recorded costs for Upper East fatteners in a 2016 survey (feed and transport were not costed), matters to the finishing budget in Pillar 5 mostly through the deaths it prevents, which is why prevention is where money is saved.15

Written for each reader

🐄 Practitioner intelligence 🐄

Hover any card to pause and lift it.

For students

Learn the diseases by what they do to a decision. Foot-and-mouth is a trade and movement problem, CBPP and anthrax are mass-death problems, trypanosomiasis is a breed-and-site problem, and brucellosis is a fertility and human-health problem. The most useful thing to understand is that prevention works and pays but rarely reaches the animal, so the value is in delivery and diagnosis. Spend time with the North Gonja case: it teaches, in one event, why handling capacity is the sector's real weakness.

For entrepreneurs

First move: build a service in the gap between a working vaccine and the animal that needs it, cold-chain delivery, pen-side diagnostics, or a correct-vaccination-and-biosecurity advisory the herd owner pays for after a scare. The trap is assuming farmers will not pay for prevention: they already lose ten percent a year, so price prevention below that loss and prove it worked. Avoid siting a feedlot inside the tsetse belt without a fly-control plan, and never treat vaccine handling as an afterthought, because that is what killed about 180 animals at North Gonja.

For investors

Underwrite animal-health exposure before headcount. A venture that holds grouped animals, a feedlot or a finishing operation, is one outbreak away from a wipeout unless biosecurity and vaccination are designed in, so treat any plan that is silent on disease as carrying unpriced risk. The thesis worth backing is the delivery layer: cold-chain vaccine logistics, diagnostics and advisory, where demand rests on a median 10 percent annual loss to disease and a positive return on vaccination in most African studies. Cowtribe (Pillar 8) is the template for how that layer reaches a mobile, informal herd.

For ecosystem actors

The lever is delivery capacity: potent vaccine, correctly handled, reaching a mobile herd, with a record that it was done. Strengthen the cold chain, train the field vaccinator and revive the national tsetse-control effort that lapsed after the African Development Bank project ended in 2012, and measure success as vaccination coverage and herd mortality. The failure to avoid is another North Gonja: vaccine bought outside the official system and given by an untrained hand, killing the animals it was meant to protect.

Footnotes
  1. Nuvey, Francis Sena, Daniel T. Haydon, Jan Hattendorf, Kennedy Kwasi Addo, Gloria Ivy Mensah, Günther Fink, Jakob Zinsstag, and Bassirou Bonfoh. "Relationship between Animal Health and Livestock Farmers' Wellbeing in Ghana: Beyond Zoonoses." BMC Public Health 23, no. 1 (2023): Article 1353. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-023-16287-2.↑
  2. Nuvey, Francis Sena, Günther Fink, Jan Hattendorf, Gloria Ivy Mensah, Kennedy Kwasi Addo, Bassirou Bonfoh, and Jakob Zinsstag. "Access to Vaccination Services for Priority Ruminant Livestock Diseases in Ghana: Barriers and Determinants of Service Utilization by Farmers." Preventive Veterinary Medicine 215 (2023): Article 105919. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prevetmed.2023.105919.↑
  3. "Suspected Anthrax Outbreak Kills over 180 Cattle in North Gonja." The Herald Ghana, 10 September 2025. https://theheraldghana.com/suspected-anthrax-outbreak-kills-over-180-cattle-in-north-gonja/.↑
  4. Malik, Gazari. "Dozens of Cattle die from suspected vaccine overdose in North Gonja." Citi Newsroom, 9 September 2025. https://www.citinewsroom.com/2025/09/dozens-of-cattle-die-from-suspected-vaccine-overdose-in-north-gonja/.↑
  5. Nuvey, Francis Sena, Jalil Arkoazi, Jan Hattendorf, Gloria Ivy Mensah, Kennedy Kwasi Addo, Günther Fink, Jakob Zinsstag, and Bassirou Bonfoh. "Effectiveness and Profitability of Preventive Veterinary Interventions in Controlling Infectious Diseases of Ruminant Livestock in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Scoping Review." BMC Veterinary Research 18, no. 1 (2022): Article 332. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-022-03428-9.↑
  6. Odoom, Theophilus, Sherry Ama Mawuko Johnson, William Tasiame, Richard Kwamena Abbiw, Kingsley Kwabena Amoako, Benita Anderson, Joseph K. Abuh, et al. "Molecular Epidemiology and Co-Circulation of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Serotypes in Ghana, 2024." Viruses 18, no. 7 (2026): Article 769. https://doi.org/10.3390/v18070769.↑
  7. Mulongo, Musa. Control and Eradication of CBPP in Africa: Challenges and Strategies for a CBPP Free Africa. World Organisation for Animal Health, Regional Representation for Africa, 2025. https://rr-africa.woah.org/app/uploads/2025/01/26A_EN_Technical-Item-I.pdf.↑
  8. Ofori, Jennifer Afua, Soale Majeed Bakari, Saikou Bah, Michael Kojo Kolugu, George Kwame Aning, Gordon Akanzuwine Awandare, Mark Carrington, and Theresa Manful Gwira. "A Longitudinal Two-Year Survey of the Prevalence of Trypanosomes in Domestic Cattle in Ghana by Massively Parallel Sequencing of Barcoded Amplicons." PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases 16, no. 4 (2022): e0010300. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0010300.↑
  9. Tasiame, W., B. O. Emikpe, R. D. Folitse, C. O. Fofie, V. Burimuah, S. Johnson, J. A. Awuni, E. Afari, N. Yebuah, and F. Wurapa. "The Prevalence of Brucellosis in Cattle and Their Handlers in North Tongu District of Volta Region, Ghana." African Journal of Infectious Diseases 10, no. 2 (2016): 111-117. https://doi.org/10.21010/ajid.v10i2.6.↑
  10. Ministry of Food and Agriculture. Feed Ghana Programme (FGP): A Four-Year Agricultural Transformation Programme (2025-2028). ISBN 978-9988-51-861-5. Accra: Ministry of Food and Agriculture, 2025. https://mofa.gov.gh/site/images/pdf/Feed_Ghana_Programme.pdf.↑
  11. Agbove, Philip Teye. "Livestock Farmers Say Feed Ghana Programme Has Left Them Behind." The Fourth Estate, 5 August 2026. https://thefourthestategh.com/2026/08/livestock-farmers-say-feed-ghana-programme-has-left-them-behind.↑
  12. Emikpe, Benjamin Obukowho, Garba Maina Ahmed, Anthony Akunzule, Nii Nortey Hanson-Nortey, Peter Awin, Queenly Quartey, Henry Nii Ayi Anang, et al. "Coordinated response to anthrax outbreaks in the Upper East Region of Ghana; the role of the One Health approach." PAMJ - One Health 13 (2024): 11. https://doi.org/10.11604/pamj-oh.2024.13.11.42004.↑
  13. African Union Commission. Monitoring and Evaluation of Tsetse and Trypanosomiasis control activities in Ghana. African Union Commission, 2019. https://au.int/en/pressreleases/20190807/monitoring-and-evaluation-tsetse-and-trypanosomiasis-control-activities-ghana.↑
  14. Tweneboah, Austine, Jana Rosenau, Kofi Agyapong Addo, Thomas Kwame Addison, Mahamat Alhadj Moussa Ibrahim, Judith Sophie Weber, Soerge Kelm, and Kingsley Badu. "The Transmission of Animal African Trypanosomiasis in Two Districts in the Forest Zone of Ghana." American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 110, no. 6 (2024): 1127-1136. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.23-0329.↑
  15. Roelen, Suzanne. Exploring the Current Status of Ruminant Value Chains in Northern Ghana, and the Role of Grain Legume Residues as a Livestock Feed Resource. Wageningen: Wageningen University, 2017. https://www.n2africa.org/sites/default/files/Msc%20thesis_Suzanne%20Roelen.pdf.↑
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