Ghana Agribusiness Playbook← Oil Palm
From fresh fruit bunch to refined oil, the full oil palm value chain
Oil Palm · Pillar 06

Value Chain Analysis

Ghana's palm oil story is decided along the chain: in who mills, who refines, who brands and who keeps the value. Across the global palm oil chain, brand owners and retailers take about 66 percent of the gross profit while smallholders keep almost none, and every opening is a way to climb toward the higher-value end.
Value Chain Analysis · Pillar 06

Ghana's palm oil story is decided along the chain: in who mills, who refines, who brands, and who keeps the value. The chain runs from seed to shelf, and at several points along it value leaks out and can be caught.

The oil palm value chain runs through six stages: inputs and seed, production, aggregation, milling, refining, and the end market. What makes Ghana’s chain unusual is that at the milling stage it splits in two, and everything about the economics follows from that split1.

A women-led artisanal mill boiling and pressing oil palm fruit into cloudy red oil in Ghana
Where the value leaks
From seed to shelf: From an input shop to the shelf, the oil palm chain forks in two at the milling stage, and the economics follow the fork.
Two chains
the chain forks in two at the milling stage
~75%
of the fruit is grown on artisanal farms; artisanal mills make about 60% of the oil
~6%
of the value in the global palm oil chain kept by smallholders, with almost none of the profit
The Ghana oil palm value chain, from inputs to consumers, splitting at milling into an artisanal and a formal chain
Figure 20 The Ghana oil palm value chain, from inputs to consumers, splitting at milling into an artisanal and a formal chain
What this shows

Six stages run from inputs to consumers, but at milling the chain forks into an artisanal red-oil chain and a formal refined chain that serve very different markets, and the money follows the fork.

An industrial oil palm mill in Ghana receiving fresh fruit bunches by truck
Extraction is the wedge
An industrial mill pulls out about 20 percent oil against an artisanal mill's 11, so the same fruit earns far more in the formal chain.

🌴 One crop, two chains 🌴

The single most important fact about Ghana’s palm oil is that it moves through two parallel chains. The first is an artisanal red-oil chain: artisanal farms grow about three-quarters of the fresh fruit bunches and artisanal mills make about 60 percent of the oil, almost all of it low-value red oil, with some artisanal fruit sold through aggregators to industrial mills2. It is run largely by women, it is informal, and it serves the domestic cooking market. The second is a formal, refined chain: estates and outgrowers feeding industrial mills at about 20 percent extraction, then refiners turning crude oil into branded cooking oil, and kernel crushers and processors making palm kernel oil and oleochemicals; these are the products that earn the money, and that Ghana still imports1.

The wedge between the two is extraction: an artisanal mill pulls out only about 11 percent oil against an industrial mill’s 20, so the same fruit yields far less in the low chain1.

Hold these two chains in mind and the whole sector makes sense. The artisanal chain moves most of the fruit but makes a low-value product it cannot sell to the branded market. The formal chain makes the valuable product, but there is not enough of it, so Ghana imports the difference. Almost every opportunity in the sector is a way of moving fruit, or a business, from the first chain into the second.

The two value chains compared, from who runs them to the market they serve
Figure 21 The two value chains compared, from who runs them to the market they serve
What this shows

The artisanal chain makes most of the oil, but low-value oil; the formal chain makes the refined product that earns the money, and that Ghana still imports.

Compare the two chains, node by node
The artisanal red-oil chain against the formal refined chain
What to compareArtisanal red-oil chainFormal refined chain
Who runs itWomen-led, informal artisanal millsEstates and industrial mills, mostly foreign-owned
Share of the fresh fruitArtisanal farms grow about three-quarters of the fruit, some of it sold through aggregators to industrial millsEstates and outgrowers feeding industrial mills
Extraction rateAbout 11 percent oilAbout 20 percent oil
Share of the oil madeAbout 60 percent, almost all red oilThe smaller, refined balance
The productLow-value red cooking oilBranded cooking oil, palm kernel oil, oleochemicals
Market servedThe domestic cooking marketThe branded market Ghana still imports into

Sources: Ruml et al. (2022); Ofosu-Budu and Sarpong (2013); "Reviving the Oil Palm Sector" (2025).213

🌴 The land paradox 🌴

Share of land against share of crude palm oil, by producer type
Figure 22 Share of land against share of crude palm oil, by producer type
What this shows

Estates turn a fifth of the land into over half the oil, while smallholders work three-quarters of the land for well under half. The gap is yield and extraction.

A fifth of the land, over half the oil

The two chains produce a striking imbalance in the land: the large plantations use about 20 percent of the land but make about 55 percent of the crude palm oil, while smallholders on about 77 percent of the land make about 39 percent, on data for about 20101.

A fifth of the land, in the hands of the estates, makes more than half the oil; three-quarters of the land, in the hands of smallholders, makes well under half. The gap is the yield and extraction story of Pillars 4 and 5, written across the whole country1.

~20%
of the land, in estates, makes about 55% of the crude palm oil (about 2010)
~77%
of the land, in smallholders, makes about 39% of the oil

🌴 Who earns what along the chain 🌴

Follow the money along the global palm oil chain and the picture is stark. Measured by value, of the roughly US$282 billion world chain, smallholders keep about 6 percent, plantations about 14 percent, refiners about 23 percent and brand owners and retailers about 54 percent4.

But measured by profit, the split is sharper still: brand owners and retailers take about 66 percent of the chain’s gross profit, refiners about 16 percent, plantations about 13 percent and smallholders almost none4, figures IISD’s 2023 market report also reports5. The people who grow the crop capture the least; the brand owners and retailers at the far end capture the most.

How value and gross profit are shared between the nodes of the global palm oil chain, 2020/21
Figure 23 How value and gross profit are shared between the nodes of the global palm oil chain, 2020/21
📡 Market signal: the money is at the top

The chart describes the world chain rather than Ghana's, but it points the same way as the Ghana evidence on extraction and imports. The value sits in the refining, branding and speciality products at the top of the chain, and least in growing the fruit, where the return is thinnest. For Ghana, that means the prize is climbing the chain toward the nodes that keep the profit.

Share of the global chain's value, 2020/21
~6%
kept by the smallholders who grow the crop
~14%
kept by the plantations
~23%
kept by the refiners
~54%
kept by brand owners and retailers
Share of the global chain's gross profit, 2020/21
~66%
taken by brand owners and retailers at the far end
~16%
taken by the refiners
~13%
taken by the plantations
almost none
left for the smallholders who grow the crop

🌴 The value ladder, from fruit to speciality 🌴

The value ladder: the price of a tonne of each product, and what one tonne of fruit is worth at each step
Figure 24 The value ladder: the price of a tonne of each product, and what one tonne of fruit is worth at each step
What this shows

Per tonne of product, crude palm oil is worth about seven and a half times, and palm kernel oil about fifteen times, a tonne of fresh fruit bunches (about US$150). But a tonne of bunches makes only about 110 to 200 kilograms of oil and 20 to 30 kilograms of kernel oil, so at artisanal extraction the oil is worth less than the fruit sold at the minimum price. Ghana mostly sells at the bottom of this ladder.

The same story reads as a ladder of prices. A tonne of fresh fruit bunches is worth only about US$150 at the Authority’s September 2026 minimum of GH¢1,714.406. Crude palm oil sells for about US$1,117 a tonne7, but a tonne of bunches yields only about 200 kilograms of it at industrial extraction, worth about US$223, so milling adds about half again to the fruit’s value. Refining and branding add more again. Palm kernel oil, pressed from the kernel rather than made from crude oil, fetched about US$2,264 a tonne in August 2026, roughly twice the crude-palm-oil price7, and oleochemicals are worth more again.

Each rung multiplies the money, and Ghana mostly sells from the bottom two.

The value ladder: price per tonne at each rung of the chain
Rung of the chainValue per tonneBasis
Fresh fruit bunchesabout US$150 a tonneTCDA minimum, September 2026 (GH¢1,714.40 at GH¢11.43)
Crude palm oilabout US$1,117 a tonneWorld Bank Pink Sheet, August 2026; a tonne of fruit makes about 200 kg at industrial extraction, worth about US$223
Refined and branded oilmore again above crudeRefining and branding add value above the crude price
Palm kernel oil and oleochemicalsabout US$2,264 a tonne for palm kernel oilWorld Bank Pink Sheet, August 2026; roughly twice the crude price, and oleochemicals more again

Fresh-fruit-bunch value is the Tree Crops Development Authority minimum for September 2026 at GH¢11.43 to the dollar; the other rungs are world prices for August 2026.

Sources: World Bank (2026b), August 2026 prices; Tree Crops Development Authority (2026a).76

🌴 The missing middle, and the climb downstream 🌴

Aggregation, the weakest link

Between the smallholder and the mill sits the weakest link in the chain: tens of thousands of smallholders farm the belt (about 119,724 households harvested oil palm in the 2016/17 living standards survey), yet fewer than 5,000 are reported to be formally tied to a large mill83. Most growers are independent, selling loose fruit to agents and market queens rather than to a mill on contract: about 70 percent are independent, 28 percent outgrowers and only 2 percent tied to a nucleus estate1.

In the early 1990s the industry association set a formula that priced fresh fruit bunches at 10 percent of the factory-gate crude-palm-oil price8. The Authority’s monthly minimum now sits well above it: the September 2026 minimum of GH¢1,714.40 a tonne is about 14 percent of the reference crude-oil price6.

Aggregation and outgrower schemes that give smallholders a reliable, priced route to an industrial mill, and give the mill a secured supply, which could run through a mobile platform that matches fruit to the nearest mill and routes collection. This missing middle is the clearest structural gap in the chain. Quality-based buying, paying more for fresh, clean, promptly delivered fruit, pulls the whole smallholder base toward the formal chain. New nucleus-and-outgrower projects are also looking for suppliers: Onesta Ghana’s Redgold Oil Palm Plantation project, a public-private partnership launched in July 2025, plans an initial 10,000 hectares with processing and an outgrower scheme, and seeks US$50 million for its first phase9.

Oil palm fresh fruit bunches aggregated and loaded onto a truck bound for an industrial mill in Ghana
Fewer than 5,000 tied to a mill
The missing middle: fruit aggregated and trucked to a mill. This weak link between farm and mill is itself a low-capital opening.
Bars of soap, detergents and refined branded cooking oil made from palm and palm kernel oil
Downstream is wide open
Soap, detergents and refined branded oil are the high-value uses Ghana barely touches, on raw materials it already has.
Palm kernels and golden palm kernel oil pressed from them
Twice the crude price
Palm kernel oil sells at about twice the crude price, from kernels Ghana now crushes mostly into low-grade oil.
Bottles of refined golden branded cooking oil on a supermarket shelf
The oil Ghana imports
Refined and branded cooking oil is the product that earns the money, and the product Ghana still imports.

The top of the chain is wide open, and the higher-value uses are where the growth is: about three-quarters of palm oil goes to food, and oleochemicals take about 8 percent of palm oil and about 70 percent of all palm kernel oil for soap and detergents, all global shares4, and biodiesel takes a growing share globally. Ghana already has the raw materials, crude palm oil and palm kernel, for a soap and oleochemical industry it largely imports the inputs for. World supply is also tightening: Indonesia, the world’s largest producer, raised its mandatory biodiesel blend to 50 percent from 1 July 2026, which keeps more of its oil at home10.

And the mills throw off energy: Ghana’s palm oil sector generates about one million tonnes of solid residue and 1.4 million tonnes of mill effluent a year, and GOPDC already runs a biogas plant on it at Kwae11.

~70%
of all palm kernel oil worldwide goes to soap and detergents, a raw material Ghana has
1m t
of solid residue a year from Ghana's palm oil sector, energy the mills throw off

🌴 The estates, and why Ghana's chain stalled 🌴

A refining and bottling line turning crude palm oil into branded cooking oil in Ghana
Capacity and refining
A net importer of its own oil: the constraint looks like capacity and refining.

The formal chain runs through a handful of large estates, most of them foreign-owned. GOPDC, at about 21,000 hectares, a 60-tonne-an-hour mill and a 100-tonne-a-day refinery, bought from its Belgian parent SIAT by Presco for about US$124.9 million in a deal announced in 2024, approved by Presco’s shareholders in August 2025 and concluded in January 2026121314, is the largest and is now wholly owned by the Nigerian-listed Presco Plc. BOPP runs a 30-tonne-an-hour mill that processed about 121,787 tonnes of fresh fruit bunches in 2025 for revenue of about GH¢369 million and a profit after tax of about GH¢84.2 million15, and is majority-owned by Wilmar Africa; in 2026 it reported spending about GH¢107 million on 3,030 hectares and kept its RSPO certification16. Twifo Oil Palm Plantations is a state joint venture in which Unilever took a 40 percent stake in 1995; Unilever was once described as the country’s largest buyer of crude palm oil, but its Frytol cooking-oil brand passed to Wilmar Africa in 2010817; NORPALM, Plantations Socfinaf Ghana and Juaben Oil Mills make up much of the rest8. That Ghana is a net importer of the very oil these estates produce suggests the constraint is capacity and refining.

The chain is also a very large employer: over 1.2 million people depend on the industry for their livelihood18, about 119,724 households harvested oil palm in the 2016/17 living standards survey8, and the new policy aims to add about 250,000 direct and indirect jobs19. Women dominate the artisanal processing end, where a red-oil crew may be twenty or more people, most of them women, and made up as much as 60 percent of workers on large estates in a 2010 ministry estimate, though about 40 percent at GOPDC1. Any change to how the chain works lands, first and hardest, on them.

Ghana and Malaysia planted oil palm at similar times, yet Malaysia built a world-leading, fully integrated chain while Ghana’s stalled at low-value milling. The difference was decades of investment in milling, refining and scale, and the institutions to support them20. Next door, Cote d’Ivoire made the investment Ghana did not, and now exports a surplus (Pillar 2). The lesson is direct: the value chain is where the sector is won or lost, and it is the part Ghana has most neglected.

The European deforestation rules of Pillar 3 land squarely on this chain. To sell refined oil into Europe, the chain must become traceable from the plot up, which the fragmented smallholder base makes hard. But the estates and outgrower schemes that solve it first turn a compliance burden into a defensible, premium export position. Traceability is now part of the value chain.

🌴 The Opening: the value chain as a whole 🌴
01

Climb from the low chain to the high one. The whole game is moving fruit, and businesses, from the artisanal chain into the formal one, by lifting extraction, aggregating, refining or branding.

02

Own the missing middle. Tens of thousands of smallholders farm the belt, yet fewer than 5,000 are reported to be formally tied to a large mill. Aggregation and fair outgrower schemes, which could run through a mobile platform that matches fruit to the nearest mill, are the clearest structural gap in the chain.

03

Build downstream. Soap and oleochemicals, palm kernel oil, biodiesel and mill-waste energy are high-value uses Ghana barely touches, on raw materials it already has. The top of the chain is wide open and where the growth is.

04

Refine what Ghana imports. Ghana is a net importer of the very oil its own estates produce, which suggests the constraint is milling and refining capacity. Adding formal milling and refining captures the product the country buys from abroad.

🌴 The risks that sit inside the value chain 🌴

A Ghanaian woman hand-pressing boiled palm fruit for low-value artisanal red oil, trapped at the bottom of the value chain, documentary photograph

Being trapped in the low-value chain

HIGH
What it is

A grower who sells loose fruit, or an artisanal miller who makes red oil, sits at the node that, in the global chain, captures about 6 percent of the value and almost none of the profit. Staying there, however hard you work, means the money is always made by someone further up.

Evidence

Across the global chain, smallholders keep about 6 percent of value and almost nothing of gross profit, while brand owners and retailers take about 66 percent of the profit4.

Who it hits

Smallholders selling raw fruit and artisanal millers selling red oil.

How to manage it, and the opening

Move up the chain: lift extraction, aggregate, refine, brand, or supply an industrial mill on contract. Each of these is a route from the low chain to the high one.

Scattered small lots of red palm oil from many Ghanaian smallholders with no aggregator to consolidate and offtake them, documentary photograph

The aggregation and offtake gap

MEDIUM-HIGH
What it is

There is no reliable link between most smallholders and an industrial mill. Fewer than 5,000 are reported to be formally tied to one, prices are set by whoever buys the fruit, and the few nucleus schemes hold considerable power over the growers around them.

Evidence

Tens of thousands of smallholders farm the belt, yet fewer than 5,000 are reported to be formally linked to a large mill; an industry formula of the early 1990s priced fresh fruit bunches at 10 percent of the crude-palm-oil price, below today’s minimum of about 14 percent86.

Who it hits

Independent smallholders without a mill contract, and mills without a secured supply.

How to manage it, and the opening

Build the missing middle: aggregation businesses and fair outgrower schemes, backed by the Authority's minimum fresh-fruit-bunch price. This gap is also a structural opening.

A basin of cloudy artisanal red palm oil, high in free fatty acid and sediment, that branded buyers will not accept
The artisanal chain
Left: cloudy artisanal red oil the branded market will not buy.
An industrial oil palm estate mill set among its plantation blocks in Ghana
The formal chain
Right: the industrial estate mill that makes the refined oil Ghana still imports.

Plate 3: The two chains side by side: cloudy artisanal red oil the branded market will not buy (left), and the industrial estate mill that makes the refined oil Ghana still imports (right).

🌴 Key takeaways 🌴
01

Ghana has two palm oil chains: a large artisanal red-oil chain that makes low-value oil, and a smaller formal chain that makes the refined product the country imports. The whole game is moving fruit and businesses from the first into the second.

02

The value is at the top. Across the global chain, growers capture about 6 percent of the value and almost none of the profit; refining, branding and speciality products keep the rest. The prize is climbing the chain.

03

A fifth of the land makes over half the oil, and three-quarters of the land makes well under half. The chain's biggest inefficiency is the low-yield, low-extraction smallholder base, which is also its biggest opportunity.

04

The missing middle, the weak link between smallholders and industrial mills, is the clearest structural gap and a real aggregation business.

05

Downstream is wide open: soap and oleochemicals, palm kernel oil, biodiesel and mill-waste energy are high-value uses Ghana barely touches, on raw materials it already has.

Where this connects. It builds on the planting material and yield of Pillars 1 and 4, the demand and prices of Pillar 2, the disease, quality and regulatory risks of Pillar 3, and the cost and returns of Pillar 5. Pillar 7 turns the whole chain into a practitioner's action plan, and Pillar 8 into a strategic outlook.

Written for each reader

🌴 Practitioner intelligence 🌴

Hover any card to pause and lift it.

For students

The value chain is the best map of where the jobs and ventures are, and most of them are off the farm. The value sits in milling, aggregation, refining, quality and branding. Learn how fruit moves from a smallholder to a mill, where the price is set and where the quality is lost, and you can work in aggregation, mill sourcing, or quality management, or start a small aggregation business yourself. The mistake first-timers make is fixing on production because it is visible; the money is one or two steps downstream, where fewer people are looking.

For entrepreneurs

First move: position yourself between the two chains. The highest-value, lowest-capital entry is aggregation, buying fresh, clean fruit from smallholders and delivering it fast to an industrial mill, or bulking clean red oil up to a refiner's standard. Secure both ends, the fruit supply and the mill or refiner offtake, before you build anything. The trap is competing with the artisanal chain on its own low-value terms; the money is in feeding the formal chain. Use the minimum-price floor to make supply reliable.

For investors

The thesis: in palm oil the return climbs as you move up the chain, from grower to miller to refiner to brand. Diligence asks: which node does the deal sit in, and can it move up; is a fresh-fruit-bunch or crude-palm-oil supply secured, close and to quality; and does the business capture kernel and by-product value as well as oil. Underwrite integration and offtake. The dominant risk is a business locked into the low-value chain with no path up; the dominant opportunity is the refining and aggregation nodes that Ghana under-serves while importing the product they would make.

For ecosystem actors

The lever: invest in the middle and the top of the chain as well as the bottom. Shared industrial milling, refining capacity, aggregation infrastructure and a national traceability system do more for the sector than more planting, because they move fruit into the high-value chain and open the export premium. The measurable outcome is the share of national fruit milled industrially, the share of demand met by refined local oil, and export volume verified deforestation-free. The failure to avoid is funding production while the milling, refining and aggregation bottlenecks that trap value in the low chain are left in place.

Footnotes
  1. Ofosu-Budu, K., & Sarpong, D. B. (2013). Oil palm industry growth in Africa: A value chain and smallholders' study for Ghana. In A. Elbehri (Ed.), Rebuilding West Africa's food potential: Policies and market incentives for smallholder-oriented agriculture (pp. 347-390). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; International Fund for Agricultural Development. https://www.fao.org/4/i3222e/i3222e11.pdf↑
  2. Ruml, A., Chrisendo, D., Iddrisu, A. M., Karakara, A. A., Nuryartono, N., Osabuohien, E., & Lay, J. (2022). Smallholders in agro-industrial production: Lessons for rural development from a comparative analysis of Ghana's and Indonesia's oil palm sectors. Land Use Policy, 119, Article 106196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2022.106196↑
  3. Reviving the oil palm sector: Empowering smallholders through outgrower schemes for poverty alleviation. (2025, October 27). The Business & Financial Times. https://thebftonline.com/article/reviving-the-oil-palm-sector-empowering-smallholders-through-outgrower-schemes-for-poverty-alleviation↑
  4. Rijk, G., Wiggs, C., & Piotrowski, M. (2021, June 15). FMCGs, retail earn 66% of gross profits in palm oil value chain. Chain Reaction Research. https://chainreactionresearch.com/report/palm-oil-value-chain-deforestation/↑
  5. Voora, V., Bermúdez, S., Farrell, J. J., Larrea, C., & Luna, E. (2023). Global market report: Palm oil prices and sustainability. International Institute for Sustainable Development. https://www.iisd.org/system/files/2023-06/2023-global-market-report-palm-oil.pdf↑
  6. Tree Crops Development Authority. (2026a, September 1). TCDA announces minimum producer price of fresh fruit bunches of oil palm and raw rubber cup-lumps (September 2026) [Price notice]. https://tcda.gov.gh/tcda-announces-minimum-producer-price-of-fresh-fruit-bunches-of-oil-palm-and-raw-rubber-cup-lumps-september-2026/↑
  7. World Bank. (2026b, September 2). World Bank commodities price data (The Pink Sheet), September 2026. https://thedocs.worldbank.org/en/doc/74e8be41ceb20fa0da750cda2f6b9e4e-0050012026/related/CMO-Pink-Sheet-September-2026.pdf↑
  8. Asante, K. T. (2021). Political economy of the oil palm value chain in Ghana (APRA Working Paper 54). Future Agricultures Consortium. https://doi.org/10.19088/APRA.2021.008↑
  9. Dadzie, E. A. (2025a, July 9). Onesta Ghana launches Redgold Oil Palm Plantation project to boost local production and cut imports. MyJoyOnline. https://www.myjoyonline.com/onesta-ghana-launches-redgold-oil-palm-plantation-project-to-boost-local-production-and-cut-imports/↑
  10. Indonesia locks in 2026 B50 biodiesel quotas, clearing the way for nationwide rollout. (2026, July 30). Palm Oil Magazine. https://www.palmoilmagazine.com/biodiesel/2026/07/30/indonesia-locks-in-2026-b50-biodiesel-quotas-clearing-the-way-for-nationwide-rollout/↑
  11. Carbon Trust. (2021). Bioenergy in the palm oil processing sector in Ghana [Policy briefing paper, BSEAA2]. Transforming Energy Access. https://tea.carbontrust.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/BSEAA2_Bioenergy-in-palm-oil-processing-sector_Policy-Brief.pdf↑
  12. Olujinmi, D. (2024, June 4). Presco Nigeria to acquire Ghanaian oil palm company for $125 million. Nairametrics. https://nairametrics.com/2024/06/04/presco-nigeria-to-acquire-ghanaian-oil-palm-company-for-125-million/↑
  13. Eze, E. (2025, August 14). Presco completes acquisition of 100% equity stake in Ghana Oil Palm Development Company Limited. Arbiterz. https://arbiterz.com/presco-completes-acquisition-of-100-equity-stake-in-ghana-oil-palm-development-company-limited/↑
  14. Anudu, O. (2026, February 3). How Presco earned N331.2bn from 4 countries in 2025. Economy Post. https://economypost.ng/business/real-sector-and-manufacturing/how-presco-earned-n331-2bn-from-4-countries-in-2025/2026/02/03/↑
  15. Benso Oil Palm Plantation PLC. (2026). 2025 annual report and financial statements. Ghana Stock Exchange. https://gse.com.gh/wp-content/uploads/2026/04/PR-149-BENSO-OIL-PALM-PLANTATION-PLC-2025-ANNUAL-REPORT-AND-FINANCIAL-STATEMENTS2-1-compressed-1-1-1.pdf↑
  16. Bortey, F. (2026, June 5). BOPP spends GH¢107mi on 3,030 hectares, retains RSPO certification. The Business & Financial Times. https://thebftonline.com/article/bopp-spends-gh%C2%A2107mi-on-3030-hectares-retains-rspo-certification↑
  17. Ghana Export Promotion Authority. (2018, February 13). WilMar Africa Limited [Exporter profile]. GEPA Buyer Portal. https://www.gepaghana.org/import/ghana-exporter/wilmar-africa-limited/↑
  18. Acquah, E. (2025, October 23). OPDAG warns of job losses over illegal vegetable oil imports. Ghana News Agency. https://gna.org.gh/2025/10/opdag-warns-of-job-losses-over-illegal-vegetable-oil-imports/↑
  19. Welsing, K. (2025, November 13). 2026 Budget: Govt targets 100,000 hectares and 250,000 jobs in new oil palm policy. Citi Newsroom. https://www.citinewsroom.com/2025/11/2026-budget-govt-targets-100000-hectares-and-250000-jobs-in-new-oil-palm-policy/↑
  20. Fold, N., & Whitfield, L. (2012). Developing a palm oil sector: The experiences of Malaysia and Ghana compared (DIIS Working Paper 2012:08). Danish Institute for International Studies. https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/140713/WP2012-08-Palm-Oil-Malaysia-Ghana-Whitfield-Fold-web.pdf↑
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