Ghana Agribusiness Playbook← Broiler Chicken
A poultry worker vaccinating broiler chicks inside a clean brooding house
Broiler Chicken · Pillar 03

Disease, Health and Risk Profile

Disease is one of the largest avoidable losses on a Ghanaian broiler farm: a flock lost to Newcastle or a farm shut by bird flu wipes out a cycle's profit and often the capital behind it. The main killers are known, and the tools to stop them are cheap next to the loss.
Disease, Health and Risk · Pillar 03

Disease is one of the largest losses on a Ghanaian broiler farm, and most of it is preventable. A flock lost to Newcastle or a farm shut by bird flu wipes out a cycle's profit and often the capital behind it. The good news is that the main killers are known, and the tools to stop them are cheap next to the loss. The commercial questions are what threatens birds and margins, what it costs, and where keeping birds alive becomes a service others will pay for.

In a trial at the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology in Kumasi, Cobb 500 chicks from three local hatcheries lost 7.0 to 13.6 percent over six weeks.1 Typical-farm models for Ghana, built from producer focus groups, put farm-level mortality at about 3 to 10 percent a cycle, blamed on poor local chicks, weak husbandry and low biosecurity.2

The threats are a short list of well-understood diseases that arrive on the same routes every cycle, through the chick, the feed, the water, wild birds and human traffic. Because the losses are preventable, the money spent on vaccination and biosecurity works as the cheapest insurance on the farm, and the clearest place where good management separates the farms that last from the ones that fold.

A veterinary technician vaccinating day-old broiler chicks by eye-drop in a Ghanaian brooder house
Prevention is the cheapest insurance
A flock lost to Newcastle wipes out a cycle's profit, and often the capital behind it.
3 to 10%
typical-farm mortality a cycle in Ghana2
Up to 100%
Newcastle mortality in a flock with no immunity3
55%
of surveyed Birim Central farmers had given all eight vaccinations4
The broiler health calendar: what threatens the flock at each stage of the cycle, and the vaccination and biosecurity response
Figure 6 The broiler health calendar: what threatens the flock at each stage of the cycle, and the vaccination and biosecurity response

Source: Author synthesis from Okata and Al-Hassan;4 Aviagen;5 Agbehadzi et al.1

Reading the calendar

The health calendar maps the broiler cycle against the threats that arrive at each stage, and the vaccination and biosecurity response that answers each one. The dangerous windows are known in advance, so the defence can be scheduled rather than improvised.

6 to 9 weeks
the cycle in which every dangerous window is known in advance
17%
of surveyed Birim Central farmers had given none of the eight vaccinations4

🐔 The main threats, read as a balance sheet 🐔

Almost every major loss in the table is preventable for a few cedis a bird, yet Ghanaian compliance is patchy: in a survey of 60 small-scale poultry farmers of all bird types in Birim Central Municipality, Eastern Region, 55 percent had given all eight vaccinations in the national schedule and 17 percent had given none.4

Table 7: The main broiler disease threats in Ghana, read as business losses and the actions that prevent them
ThreatWhat it costsPreventable?The action that pays
Newcastle diseaseUp to 100% of a flock with no immunityYes, by vaccinationFollow the vaccination schedule without gaps
Gumboro (IBD)Immune damage, then death from other bugsYes, by vaccinationTime Gumboro doses to the chick's maternal antibody
Avian influenza (HPAI H5N1)Whole-farm cull, movement ban, no sure compensationOnly by biosecurityKeep wild birds and visitors out; report fast
Coccidiosis and wet litterSlow growth, gut damage, higher FCRYes, by litter and coccidiostatKeep litter dry; manage the drinker line
Chronic respiratory diseasePoor growth, condemnation at slaughterLargely, by air and densityVentilate; do not overcrowd (see Pillar 4)

Source: Okata and Al-Hassan; World Organisation for Animal Health; Aviagen.

🔍 What this means

The gap between what farmers know and what they do drives much of the avoidable loss: 78 percent of surveyed farmers knew the schedule, but only 55 percent followed it in full.4 That is also why the clearest openings in animal health are services sold to other farms: vaccination, biosecurity, diagnostics and advisory work.

Coccidiosis and wet litter damaging the gut and slowing growth in a broiler house
Everyday drain Coccidiosis and wet litter
Broilers panting under heat stress in a poorly ventilated tropical house
Everyday drain Heat stress and poor air
An overcrowded broiler house with birds packed above safe stocking density
Everyday drain Overcrowding and density

🐔 Newcastle and Gumboro: the vaccine-preventable killers 🐔

Newcastle disease is the one that empties houses. Mortality varies but can reach 100 percent in a flock with no immunity;3 in village flocks in the Upper East Region it caused about 40 percent mortality.6 It spreads fast and has no cure once it strikes; the only defence is vaccination before it arrives.

Gumboro, or infectious bursal disease, is quieter and just as costly: it attacks the young bird’s immune system, so survivors grow poorly and fall to everything else. Both are controlled by the vaccination schedule of the Veterinary Services Directorate (the published version dates from October 2018), and awareness runs ahead of use.4

Newcastle disease, a fast untreatable virus that can empty an unvaccinated broiler house
The one that empties houses
Newcastle spreads fast and has no cure, so any gap in vaccination is an open door.
Gumboro disease attacking the immune system of a young broiler chick
The quiet immune killer
Gumboro attacks the young bird's immune system, so survivors grow poorly and fall to everything else.
Up to 100%
Newcastle mortality in a flock with no immunity
No cure
once Newcastle strikes; the only defence is vaccination first

🐔 The published schedule, unevenly followed 🐔

The broiler window, day 0 to 42, of Ghana's published poultry vaccination schedule
Figure 7 The broiler window (day 0 to 42) of Ghana's published poultry vaccination schedule

Source: Veterinary Services Directorate schedule published in the Daily Graphic on 4 October 2018, as reproduced in Okata and Al-Hassan.4

What this shows

The figure shows the day 0 to 42 window of the Veterinary Services Directorate schedule. The broiler window holds five doses: Gumboro on days 7, 21 and 35, and Newcastle on days 14 and 28, so a missed or mistimed dose at any point in the cycle leaves the flock exposed.

1 in 6
surveyed farmers had given none of the doses, keeping disease circulating
55%
had given all eight vaccinations in the Birim Central survey
📡 Market signal: the compliance gap is the opening

The compliance gap is the market signal. Where only about half of farmers vaccinate in full and about one in six not at all, as in the Birim Central survey,4 disease keeps circulating and reinfecting even the farms that do everything right. A reliable vaccination and advisory service protects the client’s flock and also lowers the disease pressure on a whole area. That shared benefit is exactly why it is a business worth building and a service worth public support.

🐔 Bird flu: the notifiable risk 🐔

Highly pathogenic avian influenza is a different kind of threat, because the loss goes beyond the birds. When H5N1 is confirmed, the response is culling, movement bans and quarantine, and compensation is slow and partial: in the 2021 to 2022 outbreak the Ministry of Food and Agriculture set rates of GH¢30 a mature bird and GH¢10 a chick,7 and 138 affected farmers in Greater Accra were still unpaid in March 2023.8

It is present in Ghana and evolving: in active surveillance in October to December of 2021 and 2022, 2.2 percent of 2,847 poultry and pig samples and 26 of the 48 dead birds sampled (54.2 percent) tested positive for H5N1 clade 2.3.4.4b, with most positives in Greater Accra, Central and Upper East.9 A related but distinct bird-flu subtype has already reached a person: Ghana confirmed its first human H9N2 case in 2024, a two-year-old boy in the Upper East Region who fell ill in May and recovered.10 H9N2 co-circulates with H5N1. The scale has grown: in 2015 the 35 farms studied lost about 102,760 birds, 89 percent of them in Greater Accra,11 while the outbreak that began in July 2021 had affected 554,638 birds by the end of that year.7 The most recent confirmed outbreak, in Akatsi South Municipality in the Volta Region in May 2025, spread to 12 of the 15 farms in the area, and investigators linked it to shared feed mills, farm workers and maize brought in from Togo.12

The global public-health risk from H5 bird flu is assessed as low, and low to moderate for people occupationally or frequently exposed, such as those keeping backyard poultry.13 Bird flu is therefore a low everyday risk to the public but a high risk to the farm, and the only real defence is biosecurity: keeping wild birds, visitors and untested stock away from the flock, and reporting sickness fast rather than selling into the market.

26 of 48
dead birds sampled in late 2021 and 2022 tested positive for H5N1
12 of 15
farms reached by the Akatsi South outbreak, May 2025
Highly pathogenic avian influenza, the notifiable H5N1 threat that triggers a whole-farm cull
It can only be kept out
A confirmed case triggers culling and movement bans, with slow, partial compensation.
Officials in protective suits carrying out a poultry cull after a confirmed bird-flu outbreak
The loss goes beyond the birds
It can end a business overnight, even when the farmer did everything else right.
⚠️ Why bird flu is the risk that ends businesses

Because avian influenza triggers culling with no sure compensation, it is the one risk that can end a business overnight even when the farmer did everything else right. It cannot be treated; it can only be kept out. That makes biosecurity the highest-return spend on the farm, and a farm's biosecurity record its most valuable, least visible asset.

🐔 The quiet threats: drug resistance, residue and the biosecurity gap 🐔

Two slower problems decide whether a Ghanaian broiler business can ever move upmarket. The first is drug misuse. In a 2023 survey of 400 poultry farmers in the Greater Accra Region, 70 percent treated sick birds with antibiotics without consulting a vet and only 35 percent had heard of antimicrobial resistance.14 That over-use breeds antimicrobial resistance, and it leaves drug residues in the meat, which buyers with food-safety standards, such as supermarkets and exporters, can test for and reject.

The second is the gap between knowing and doing: about 82 percent of 321 adult residents surveyed in Nsawam-Adoagyiri Municipality in 2025 had good avian-influenza knowledge but only about 26 percent followed safe practices,15 and farmers who understand biosecurity still struggle to keep it up when money is tight.16 Together, drug misuse and the knowing-doing gap are also the barrier between the commodity market and the premium one.

🔍 What this means

Drug residue and weak biosecurity quietly lock a farm out of the very markets that pay best. The fresh, branded, institutional and export channels of Pillar 2 all demand a bird that can pass a residue test and a farm that can show a health record. Cleaning up drug use and biosecurity keeps birds alive and is also the entry ticket to the premium market, which makes it a commercial decision as much as a veterinary one.

70%
of 400 Greater Accra farmers surveyed gave antibiotics without a vet14
26%
of 321 Nsawam-Adoagyiri residents followed safe practices, against 82% with good avian-influenza knowledge15
Unsupervised antibiotic use in poultry breeding antimicrobial resistance and leaving drug residues in the meat
The barrier to the premium market
Drug residue is what buyers with food-safety standards can test for and reject.
A broiler farm gate with a neglected footbath, showing the gap between biosecurity intention and action
The knowing-doing gap
Farmers who understand biosecurity still struggle to keep it up when money is tight.

🐔 The economics of prevention 🐔

Prevention is cheap next to the loss, and the sum shows it. A single Newcastle break can take most of an unvaccinated flock, and even a well-run farm loses several birds in every hundred to routine disease. Against a bird worth about GH¢130 live at 2.4 kilograms (see Pillar 5), the loss from one bad disease break dwarfs the medication and vaccination line, which Pillar 5 budgets at about GH¢4 a bird; on typical Ghanaian farms costed on 2020 data, veterinary costs were about 3 to 7 percent of total cost.2

🔍 What this means

At about GH¢4 a bird against a bird worth about GH¢130 live (Pillar 5), vaccination and medication are a small, certain cost set against a large, probable loss, so on any reasonable estimate it pays for itself many times over in a single avoided outbreak. Prevention is the highest-return spend on a broiler farm, and the reason so many farms still under-spend on it is exactly why an affordable vaccination and biosecurity service is a business.

A vet performing a post-mortem on a broiler carcass to diagnose the cause of flock loss on a Ghanaian farm
Prevention is the highest-return spend
A small, certain cost set against a large, probable loss pays for itself many times over.

🐔 The threat next door: biosecurity works area by area 🐔

Disease does not respect the farm fence. Ghana shares a region with West Africa’s largest avian-influenza outbreak: since early 2025 national laboratories have confirmed 49 events in Nigeria, 9 in Togo, 3 in Niger and 1 each in Ghana and Liberia, and neighbouring Togo and Côte d’Ivoire reported new events between April and July 2026.17 Sequencing of Ghana’s viruses found two genotypes: the usual one, already identified in Ghana in 2024, and EA-2024-DI.2, which was predominant in Europe in 2024 to 2025 and could be a new introduction to West Africa.17 Worse, when an outbreak does hit, it is often reported late: in the 2015 outbreak the gap from event to report averaged about 8 days and stretched to 30,11 and in the May 2025 Akatsi South outbreak depopulation still took an average of 12 days,12 giving the virus a long head start.

49 to 1
Nigeria's confirmed bird-flu events to Ghana's since early 2025
8 to 30 days
the average and longest gap from event to report in 2015
A worker stepping through a disinfectant footbath at the entrance to a Ghanaian broiler house
More than a footbath at one gate
Disease does not respect the farm fence, so protection has to work across the whole area.
A biosecurity officer inspecting a fenced broiler farm perimeter against wild-bird and visitor access in Ghana
Fast, honest reporting
One farm's care is undone by a neighbour who hides an outbreak.
📡 Market signal: biosecurity is an area-level good

This reframes biosecurity from a private cost into a shared, area-level good. One farm's careful biosecurity is undone by a neighbour who hides an outbreak, so the real protection is fast, honest reporting and area-wide surveillance as well as a footbath at every gate. The sector needs surveillance, diagnostics and a reporting culture as much as it needs vaccines, and building those is a role for public money and a private diagnostics business alike.

🐔 The risks that sit inside disease and health 🐔

Filter the register by severity to narrow it to the threats that matter most on your farm.

Filter by severity

Highly pathogenic avian influenza

VERY HIGH
What it is

A confirmed H5N1 case triggers culling, movement bans and quarantine, with slow and uncertain compensation. It cannot be treated, only kept out, and it can end a business overnight.

Evidence

Active surveillance in late 2021 and late 2022 found 2.2 percent of samples and 26 of 48 dead birds sampled positive for H5N1 clade 2.3.4.4b;9 the latest confirmed outbreak, in Akatsi South in May 2025, reached 12 of 15 local farms;12 and Ghana’s first human H9N2 case was confirmed in 2024.10

Who it hits

Every poultry farm, but catastrophically for larger flocks with the most to lose in a single cull.

How to manage it, and the opening

Invest in biosecurity first: control wild-bird and visitor access, quarantine new stock, and report sickness immediately. The opening is biosecurity auditing and farm-certification services, which the whole sector needs.

Newcastle disease

VERY HIGH
What it is

A fast, untreatable virus that can wipe out an unvaccinated flock in days. It circulates constantly in Ghana, so any gap in vaccination is an open door.

Evidence

Newcastle mortality can reach 100 percent in a flock with no immunity,3 yet in a survey of 60 small-scale poultry farmers in Birim Central Municipality only 55 percent had given all eight vaccinations in the national schedule.4

Who it hits

Smallholders and any farm that skips or mistimes vaccination, and their neighbours, through reinfection.

How to manage it, and the opening

Vaccinate on schedule without gaps and keep a cold chain for the vaccine. The opening is a reliable vaccination and cold-chain-backed vet service, since one farm's compliance protects the whole area.

Gumboro (infectious bursal disease)

HIGH
What it is

A virus that destroys the young bird's immune system, so even survivors grow poorly and die from other infections. Its damage is easy to miss until the whole flock underperforms.

Evidence

Gumboro takes three of the doses in Ghana’s published schedule,4 and a Kumasi trial found maternal antibody levels and vaccine response differed between local hatcheries, so the right timing depends on the chick source.1

Who it hits

Farms that mistime the Gumboro dose against the chick's fading maternal antibody, a common and costly error.

How to manage it, and the opening

Time Gumboro vaccination to the chick's maternal-antibody window, guided by a vet. The opening is advisory and diagnostic support that gets the timing right.

Coccidiosis and wet litter

MEDIUM-HIGH
What it is

A gut parasite that thrives in damp litter, damaging the intestine, slowing growth and pushing up the feed conversion ratio long before it kills. It is a silent tax on every cycle run on poor litter.

Evidence

Wet litter raises ammonia, and levels above 20 parts per million increase birds’ susceptibility to respiratory disease;5 the same damp litter is where coccidiosis takes hold.

Who it hits

Farms with leaking drinkers, poor drainage or overcrowding, especially in the wet season.

How to manage it, and the opening

Keep litter dry, manage the drinker line, and use a coccidiostat programme. The opening is litter management and equipment supply that keeps houses dry.

2 more cards hidden
🐔 The Opening: where keeping birds alive becomes a business 🐔
01

A reliable vaccination and cold-chain service. Unbroken vaccine cold chain is scarce and disease is the loss farmers most want to stop. Sign farms up on a scheduled-visit basis, since one farm's compliance protects the whole area.

02

Biosecurity auditing and farm-certification services. Avian influenza can only be kept out, so a farm's biosecurity record is its most valuable, least visible asset. Auditing and certifying it is a service the whole sector needs.

03

Advisory and diagnostic support that gets vaccine timing right. Gumboro's damage turns on timing the dose to the chick's fading maternal antibody, and the right timing depends on the chick source. Advice and diagnostics that get that window right are the opening.

04

Litter management and equipment supply that keeps houses dry. Coccidiosis and respiratory loss thrive on wet litter and poor air. Dry litter, drinker-line management and ventilation kit turn a silent tax into a manageable cost.

05

A vet-supervised, residue-clean supply programme. Recorded, vet-guided medication with observed withdrawal periods produces a bird that passes a residue test, which is the entry ticket to premium, institutional and export buyers.

06

Area-wide surveillance, diagnostics and low-cost biosecurity kits. One farm's biosecurity is undone by a neighbour who hides an outbreak, so fast reporting and surveillance protect everyone. Affordable kits and training pitched at the smallholder budget close the intention-action gap.

🐔 Key takeaways 🐔
01

Disease is one of the biggest preventable losses in broiler farming, and the tools to stop it are cheap next to the loss. Vaccination and biosecurity work as insurance.

02

Newcastle can destroy an unvaccinated flock, yet in one Eastern Region survey only about half of small farmers vaccinated in full. That compliance gap is both the core risk and the clearest service opening.

03

Bird flu is a low everyday public risk but a high business risk. It can only be kept out, which makes biosecurity the highest-return spend on the farm.

04

Drug misuse and residue are also the barrier between the commodity market and the premium, institutional and export markets that pay best.

05

Across every threat, the gap is between knowing and doing. That gap is why vaccination, biosecurity, diagnostics and advisory work are real businesses.

Written for each reader

🐔 Practitioner intelligence 🐔

Hover any card to pause and lift it.

For students

If you want a way into poultry that needs little capital, learn animal health. A trained vaccinator or biosecurity advisor sells a service farmers badly need and cannot do reliably themselves. Start by shadowing a vet or the Veterinary Services Directorate and learning the vaccination schedule cold. The trap is thinking you must own birds to work in poultry; the disease-control gap is a career and a business on its own. What you gain is a skill in constant demand and a route into every farm in your area.

For entrepreneurs

First move: build a reliable vaccination and cold-chain service before anything glamorous, because unbroken vaccine cold chain is scarce and disease is the loss farmers most want to stop. Secure a vaccine supply and a working fridge or cold box, then sign up farms on a scheduled-visit basis. The trap that kills first-timers is self-medicating birds to hide poor management, which breeds resistance and locks you out of premium buyers. A residue-clean, vet-recorded health programme is what opens the doors that pay.

For investors

Diligence asks: what is this farm's biosecurity record, its vaccination compliance, and its drug-use and residue discipline. A broiler operation without these is one outbreak away from zero, so underwrite the health system before the shed. The thesis worth backing is animal-health infrastructure: cold-chain vaccine distribution, diagnostics and residue-clean certification that the whole sector lacks and the premium market requires. Treat any farm that cannot show a health record as uninvestable until it can.

For ecosystem actors

The lever is animal-health infrastructure: publicly backed cold-chain vaccine distribution, affordable diagnostics, and a biosecurity-certification scheme tied to market access. Measure success as the share of flocks fully vaccinated and the fall in reported outbreaks. The failure to avoid is spending on outbreak response alone while the prevention system stays weak, which invites the next outbreak and wastes the compensation budget.

Footnotes
  1. Agbehadzi, R.K., J.A. Hamidu, K. Adomako, and R. Enu. "Economic contribution of local hatchery performance in the poultry value chain in Ghana." Poultry Science 98, no. 6 (2019): 2399-2404. https://doi.org/10.3382/ps/pez020.↑
  2. Chibanda, Craig, Petra Thobe, Mohamad Isam Almadani, Peter van Horne, Claus Deblitz, and Christine Wieck. "Improving broiler farm competitiveness in Ghana and Senegal: insights from comparative analysis with Germany and the Netherlands." Agriculture & Food Security 13, no. 1 (2024): 65. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40066-024-00519-8.↑
  3. World Organisation for Animal Health. "Newcastle disease." WOAH, 2026. https://www.woah.org/en/disease/newcastle-disease/.↑
  4. Okata, Emmanuel Oduro, and Ramatu M. Al-Hassan. "Does publishing poultry vaccination schedule increase awareness and compliance among small-scale farmers? Evidence from Eastern Ghana." Cogent Food & Agriculture 9, no. 1 (2023): 2241709. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2023.2241709.↑
  5. Aviagen. Ross broiler management handbook. Huntsville, AL: Aviagen, 2025. https://aviagen.com/assets/Tech_Center/Ross_Broiler/Aviagen-ROSS-Broiler-Handbook-EN.pdf.↑
  6. Ouma, Emily Awuor, Clovice Kankya, Michel Dione, Terra Kelly, Dolapo Enahoro, Gaspar Chiwanga, Yakubu Abukari, Peter Msoffe, Boniface Baboreka Kayang, and Huaijun Zhou. "Poultry health constraints in smallholder village poultry systems in Northern Ghana and Central Tanzania." Frontiers in Veterinary Science 10 (2023): 1159331. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2023.1159331.↑
  7. Epp, Melanie. "Ghana compensates farmers impacted by avian influenza." The Poultry Site, 17 March 2022. https://www.thepoultrysite.com/news/2022/03/ghana-compensates-farmers-impacted-by-avian-influenza.↑
  8. Naturenews.africa. "Bird flu: 138 poultry farmers to be compensated in Ghana." Naturenews.africa, 8 March 2023. https://naturenews.africa/bird-flu-138-poultry-farmers-to-be-compensated-in-ghana/.↑
  9. Nyarko, Stephen Ofori, Ivy Asantewaa Asante, Gifty Mawuli Sarpong, Linda Boatemaa, Lorreta Kwasah, Yaw Awuku-Larbi, Vanessa Magnusen, et al. "Evidence of High Pathogenic Avian Influenza H5N1 Clade 2.3.4.4b Among Poultry in Ghana From 2021 to 2022." Veterinary Medicine and Science 12, no. 1 (2026): e70744. https://doi.org/10.1002/vms3.70744.↑
  10. Asante, Ivy Asantewaa, Nana Afia Asante-Ntim, Abigail Akua Abankwa, Obed Bangdome Ofori, Linda Boatemaa, Lorreta Kwasah, Joseph Ahia Quarcoo, et al. "Characterization of the first detected Avian Influenza A(H9N2) human case in Ghana." Emerging Microbes & Infections 14, no. 1 (2025): 2556717. https://doi.org/10.1080/22221751.2025.2556717.↑
  11. Tasiame, W., S. Johnson, V. Burimuah, E. Akyereko, P. El-Duah, E. Amemor, B. O. Emikpe, and E. W. Owiredu. "Outbreak of highly pathogenic avian influenza in Ghana, 2015: degree of losses and outcomes of time-course outbreak management." Epidemiology and Infection 148 (2020): e45. https://doi.org/10.1017/S095026882000045X.↑
  12. Okutu, Irene Adinorkie, Perpetual Asantewaa, Paul Angwaawie, Latif Gbadamashie, Cecilia Kitsi, Richard Nunyuieto, Ebenezer Kofi Mensah, et al. "Investigation of avian influenza outbreak in birds at the Akatsi South Municipality, Ghana, 2025 [conference abstract]." Journal of Interventional Epidemiology and Public Health 9, no. ConfProc7 (2026): 035. https://doi.org/10.37432/JIEPH-CONFPRO7-0035.↑
  13. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, World Health Organization and World Organisation for Animal Health. Updated joint FAO/WHO/WOAH public health assessment of recent high pathogenicity avian influenza A(H5) virus events in animals and people: Assessment based on data as of 1 March 2026. FAO, WHO and WOAH, 2026. https://www.woah.org/app/uploads/2026/05/2026-05-18-fao-woah-who-h5-assessment.pdf.↑
  14. Hackman, Henry Kwadwo, Lawrence Annison, Reuben Essel Arhin, Ebenezer Krampah Aidoo, Evans Andoh Wilberforce, Alice Constance Mensah, Louis Appiah, Sharon Annison, and Matilda Ayim-Akonor. "Awareness of antimicrobial resistance and antibiotic use among poultry farmers in Accra, Ghana: A cross-sectional survey." PLOS One 20, no. 12 (2025): e0337531. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0337531.↑
  15. Dumevi, Christopher Yaw, Mankata Joel, Doreen Edem Adzomfoa, Solomon Quarshie Sosu, Derick Nyebiribi, Josephine Afi Nukpedu Banini, Dorcas Akuorkor Teiko, et al. "Avian influenza preparedness in Ghana: a cross-sectional assessment of knowledge, attitudes, and practices among residents of Nsawam-Adoagyiri Municipality, Eastern Region." BMC Public Health 26, no. 1 (2026): 1344. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-026-27008-w.↑
  16. Buckel, Anica, Kofi Afakye, Eric Koka, Cortney Price, Emmanuel Kabali, and Mark A. Caudell. "Understanding the factors influencing biosecurity adoption on smallholder poultry farms in Ghana: a qualitative analysis using the COM-B model and Theoretical Domains Framework." Frontiers in Veterinary Science 11 (2024): 1324233. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2024.1324233.↑
  17. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. "Sub-Saharan Africa HPAI situation update." FAO Animal Health, 10 September 2026. https://www.fao.org/animal-health/situation-updates/sub-saharan-africa-hpai/en.↑
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