Ghana Agribusiness Playbook← Rice
Blast lesions on a rice panicle, and bird netting over a paddy field
Rice · Pillar 03

Disease and Risk Profile

A rice crop is under attack from germination to the store: blast, yellow mottle virus, gall midge, parasitic weeds, birds, drought and flood each take a share. Read the other way, every one of those losses is demand for resistant seed, protection, drying, storage and a better mill.
Disease and Risk · Pillar 03

A rice crop in Ghana is under attack from the day it germinates to the day it is milled, and again in the store afterwards. Disease, insects, birds, weeds, drought and flood each take a share, and the losses are not small. It reads each threat as a market, because every loss a farmer suffers is money that a product or a service could save, and someone has to sell that product or service. Resistant seed, crop protection, bird deterrents, drying and storage, and insurance are all businesses that exist because rice is under threat. The size of each loss below is also the size of the opening to reduce it.

Close-up of a rice panicle showing disease lesions in a paddy field
Every threat is a market
The size of each loss is also the size of the opening to reduce it.
10-30%
blast cuts rice yields worldwide each year
up to 100%
rice yellow mottle virus can take; no spray cures it
up to 60%
gall midge losses reported in Nigeria and Ghana

The value that good drying and milling add is covered in the cost and value-chain pillars.

Every threat is also a market
Figure 7 Every threat is also a market
What this shows

Each bar is the range of crop or value loss reported for a named threat in the studies cited in this pillar, most of them Africa-wide rather than Ghanaian. Read from the other side, each bar is demand: for resistant seed, for crop protection and advice, for bird control, for better drying and storage, and for climate-smart varieties and insurance. The bigger the loss, the bigger the business in reducing it.

24-73%
yield loss from rice vampireweed across Africa
5-18%
of the grain lost between cutting and drying in one Ashanti district

🌾 Disease: blast leads, and a virus with no cure follows 🌾

The most damaging disease of rice in Ghana is blast, a fungus that cuts rice yields worldwide by 10 to 30 percent a year and, when neck blast strikes in an epidemic year, can take most of a crop1; in a 2018 survey of 230 farmers in three Western North districts, about 78 percent said they had seen blast-like symptoms in their fields, although laboratory tests on their seed did not find the blast fungus2. Behind it sits rice yellow mottle virus, a disease found only in Africa, which can take anywhere from a tenth to the whole of a crop depending on how early the plant is infected. Surveys from 2010 to 2020 found it in nine of the 11 regions sampled, and no spray cures it, so the main defence is a resistant or tolerant variety, backed by removing infected plants and controlling the beetles that spread it3. Ghana has already released varieties rated tolerant to the virus, including the CRI AGRA rice varieties and CRI-Enapa45, but varieties carrying the strongest resistance genes are still being bred, and the virus was found in every improved and local variety sampled3. Getting tolerant seed into more fields, and the next resistant varieties through release, is itself the business.

Clean certified rice seed being inspected and hand-graded at a research station
A resistant seed in a field is the business
Tolerant varieties have been released, but are not yet widely planted.
78%
of farmers surveyed in the Western North (2018) reported blast-like symptoms
9 of 11
regions surveyed where rice yellow mottle virus was found (2010 to 2020)
Diseased rice panicle with lesions and discolouration
Blast leads
No spray cures the virus, so the main defence is a resistant or tolerant variety.
Protective bird netting over a ripening rice paddy field
Cheap products, ready market
Netting and deterrents are cheap products with a ready market.

🌾 Insects and birds: the losses that farmers see every day

Two insect threats matter most. The African rice gall midge has caused losses of up to 60 percent of the crop in Nigeria and Ghana, and stem borers, which hollow out the stem, have cut yields by 10 to 50 percent in studies in Tanzania and Kenya6. Both are best beaten by resistant varieties and by integrated pest management, using natural enemies and well-timed action rather than calendar spraying, which is a market for advice and safe inputs as well as chemicals. Then there are the birds, which farmers rank among their worst enemies because the damage is so visible. At the Kpong irrigation scheme, a 2021 survey of 252 farmers put bird losses at about GH¢1,000 to GH¢1,500 per farmer (about US$125 to US$187 at the time), with scaring labour at GH¢20 a man-day and control costs of GH¢500 to GH¢2,000 an acre each season7. Netting, reflective and sound deterrents, and planting in step with neighbours so the birds are spread thin, are all cheap products with a ready market.

GH¢1,000-1,500
bird losses per farmer at Kpong (2021 survey)
GH¢20 / man-day
scaring labour at Kpong, in 2021 prices
Fine protective bird netting stretched over a rice paddy
Netting and deterrents
Farmers rank birds among their worst enemies because the damage is so visible.

🌾 Weeds: the quiet thief, including a parasite that empties fields

Weeds are a loss farmers often underestimate. Ordinary weeds compete for light and food, but two parasites are worse. Rice vampireweed, which attaches to the roots and drains the plant, can cut yields by 24 to 73 percent and is estimated to affect about 140,000 rice-farming households across Africa; it thrives in rain-fed lowlands, the ecology that holds most of Ghana’s rice8. Striga, another root parasite, has cut upland rice yields in African farmers’ fields by 21 to 80 percent9. Weedy or red rice, a wild relative that sheds shattered, discoloured grain, quietly drags down the grade of the harvest and so the price. The defences, tolerant varieties, early and thorough weeding, level fields that hold water evenly, and clean seed, are a market for seed, for herbicides sold with advice, and for land-levelling and weeding services.

24-73%
yield loss from rice vampireweed across Africa
~140,000
African rice-farming households the parasite is estimated to affect
A drought-cracked rice paddy field under a dramatic sky
35-80% Striga in uplands
Weeds are a loss farmers often underestimate, and two parasites are worse than the rest.
Post-harvest and milling: where the grain and the value leak away
Figure 8 Post-harvest and milling: where the grain and the value leak away
What this shows

Between the field and the store, a study in one Ashanti district found grain lost at every step, and a poor mill turns under half of the paddy into whole grains where a good one turns about two thirds. These losses are demand for threshers, dryers, hermetic storage and better mills, and they are covered as opportunities in the cost and value-chain pillars.

47% vs 67%
whole grains from a poor mill against a good one
~21%
of production cost is harvest and post-harvest work

🌾 After the harvest: the losses that also destroy the quality

The threats do not stop at harvest. Field measurements in one Ashanti district found 5 to 18 percent of the grain lost between cutting and drying, and a further 7 percent in storage10; the African Postharvest Losses Information System puts Ghana’s average rice loss at about 12 percent11. Farmers surveyed in three districts said harvest and post-harvest work takes about a fifth of their production cost12. Worse, these steps do not only lose grain, they wreck its quality: paddy dried on the ground or threshed by beating cracks and discolours, and a poor mill then turns only about 47 percent of it into whole grains against 67 percent from a good one10, a gap confirmed across 12 African sites including Navrongo, where Engelberg-type mills gave 35 to 49 percent whole grains against 53 to 62 percent from rubber-roll mills13. This is the same quality gap that loses local rice its place on the shelf, seen from the loss side. Threshers, flat-bed and solar dryers, sealed storage and modern mills are the answer, and the business case for them is made in full in the cost and value-chain pillars.

🌾 Climate: drought and flood, the shocks that decide the year 🌾

The largest production risk to a rice crop in Ghana is the weather, although in 2026 the paddy price crash is cutting planted area more than any climate shock. The 2024 drought hit eight of Ghana’s 16 regions: USDA forecast the national rice area down 16 percent and milled output down 21 percent14, and the Ghana Grains Council put rice losses near a quarter and predicted grain-sector losses from the 2023 and 2024 droughts at GH¢22.2 billion, about US$1.3 billion15. The government banned grain exports in August 2024; the ban was still in force in 2026, when it was blamed for deepening the paddy glut and the government was weighing lifting it1617. At the other extreme, when the Bagre dam in Burkina Faso spills, as it did from 25 August 2025 and was set to do again from 28 August 2026, floodwater pours down the White Volta and drowns rice fields in the Upper East and further downstream1819. Floods are reported to be growing more frequent in the north, and climate projections point to more extremes of both kinds20. The defences are practical and sellable: flood-tolerant (Sub1) varieties that survive up to about two weeks fully under water, such as FARO 66 and FARO 67 released in Nigeria, drought-tolerant varieties for the dry north, irrigation and water control that buffer both, and crop insurance and early-warning services that spread the risk2120.

US$1.3 bn
grain-sector losses predicted from the 2023 and 2024 droughts
-21%
national milled rice output forecast in the 2024 drought (USDA)
A dry, drought-cracked rice paddy field under a dramatic sky
The largest single risk
Drought and Bagre-driven floods are the shocks that decide the year.

🌾 The risk register: eight threats, and the business inside each 🌾

Filter by severity
Close-up of rice leaves and necks showing grey-brown rice blast lesions in a Ghanaian paddy, a farmer examining the diseased plants, documentary photograph

Rice blast

HIGH
What it is

A fungus that attacks leaves, necks and panicles, cutting yields worldwide by 10 to 30 percent a year, and by far more where neck blast strikes in an epidemic. It breaks down variety resistance over time, so the threat keeps returning.

Evidence

In a 2018 survey of 230 farmers in three Western North districts, about 78 percent reported blast-like symptoms, though laboratory tests on their seed did not find the blast fungus2.

Who it hits

All rice ecologies, worst where nitrogen is high and humidity lingers.

How to manage it, and the opening

Plant resistant or tolerant varieties, treat seed, balance nitrogen, and scout early. The opening: a business supplying clean resistant seed, approved fungicides sold with advice, and simple scouting and forecasting services.

Rice plants with yellow-mottled, streaked leaves from rice yellow mottle virus in a Ghanaian irrigated field, documentary photograph

Rice yellow mottle virus

HIGH
What it is

An Africa-only virus spread by beetles and by handling, which across Africa has taken anywhere from a tenth to the whole of a crop depending on how early it strikes and the variety planted. There is no chemical cure; only a resistant variety protects the plant.

Evidence

Found in nine of the 11 regions surveyed from 2010 to 20203; tolerant varieties such as the CRI AGRA rice varieties and CRI-Enapa have been released, but varieties with the strongest resistance genes are still in breeding45.

Who it hits

Lowland and irrigated schemes where cropping is continuous.

How to manage it, and the opening

Use resistant or tolerant varieties, remove infected plants early, and control the beetle vectors. The opening: multiplying and selling certified seed of the tolerant varieties already released, and of resistant varieties as they come out of breeding.

Rice tillers deformed into tubular onion-leaf galls by African rice gall midge in a Ghanaian lowland field, a farmer holding a damaged stem, documentary photograph

African rice gall midge and stem borers

MEDIUM-HIGH
What it is

The gall midge turns tillers into onion-leaf galls that bear no grain and can take up to 60 percent of a crop; stem borers hollow the stem and kill the panicle.

Evidence

Gall midge losses of up to 60 percent reported in Nigeria and Ghana; stem borer losses of 10 to 50 percent in Tanzania and Kenya6.

Who it hits

Rain-fed lowlands and continuously cropped schemes.

How to manage it, and the opening

Plant resistant varieties, keep to a synchronised planting calendar, and use integrated pest management over calendar spraying. The opening: resistant seed, safe-input supply with training, and pest-scouting advice.

A flock of weaver birds descending on ripening rice panicles near an irrigation scheme in Ghana, a farmer scaring them away, documentary photograph

Birds

MEDIUM-HIGH
What it is

Flocks of weavers and queleas strip grain at the milk and ripening stages, one of the most visible and demoralising losses farmers face, near water bodies especially.

Evidence

At Kpong, a 2021 survey put bird losses at about GH¢1,000 to GH¢1,500 per farmer in 2021 prices, plus GH¢20 a man-day in scaring labour7.

Who it hits

Fields near dams, rivers and irrigation schemes.

How to manage it, and the opening

Use netting, reflective and sound deterrents, and plant in step with neighbours so damage is spread. The opening: affordable bird-control products and, at scale, shared scaring and deterrent services.

Purple-flowered parasitic vampireweed choking a rain-fed rice field in northern Ghana, a farmer pointing at the infestation, documentary photograph

Parasitic and weedy weeds

MEDIUM-HIGH
What it is

Rice vampireweed drains the plant from the roots and can take a quarter to three quarters of a rain-fed crop; Striga does the same in the uplands; weedy red rice sheds discoloured grain that lowers the grade and the price.

Evidence

Across Africa, rice vampireweed causes 24 to 73 percent loss and affects an estimated 140,000 rice-farming households in at least 35 countries8; Striga 21 to 80 percent9.

Who it hits

Rain-fed lowlands (vampireweed) and uplands (Striga), on poor, uneven fields.

How to manage it, and the opening

Weed early and thoroughly, level fields so water is even, plant tolerant varieties and clean seed, and use approved herbicides with advice. The opening: land-levelling and weeding services, and clean seed of tolerant varieties.

Freshly harvested rice drying on bare ground and spilling from torn sacks in Ghana, showing cracked and broken grain, documentary photograph

Post-harvest and milling loss

HIGH
What it is

Poor threshing, slow drying and bad storage lose roughly 5 to 18 percent of the grain in field measurements, and about 12 percent on the national estimate, and also crack and discolour it, so a poor mill then yields mostly broken rice. It is a loss of quantity and of quality at once.

Evidence

Farmers in three districts put harvest and post-harvest work at about 21 percent of production cost12; in an Ashanti study a local mill gave about 47 percent whole grains against 67 percent from a modern mill10.

Who it hits

Every producer, but worst for smallholders without threshers, dryers or access to a good mill.

How to manage it, and the opening

Thresh promptly, dry on raised beds to the right moisture, store sealed, and mill on modern equipment. The opening, developed fully in the cost and value-chain pillars: threshers, dryers, sealed storage and destoning, grading mills.

A drought-stricken rice field in northern Ghana with cracked dry soil and withered rice plants, a worried farmer standing in it, documentary photograph

Drought

VERY HIGH
What it is

A failed or late rainy season can cut the rain-fed crop by a quarter or more and destroy the incomes of farmers who depend entirely on rain, which is most of them.

Evidence

The 2024 drought cut national rice area by 16 percent and milled output by 21 percent14; the Ghana Grains Council put rice losses near a quarter and predicted grain-sector losses from the 2023 and 2024 droughts at about US$1.3 billion15.

Who it hits

Rain-fed lowland and upland farmers, concentrated in the north.

How to manage it, and the opening

Plant drought-tolerant varieties, develop irrigation and water control, and use crop insurance. The opening: drought-tolerant seed, irrigation services, and index insurance built for rice.

A rice field submerged under floodwater along the White Volta after Bagre dam spillage in Ghana's Upper East, only the tips of the rice showing, documentary photograph

Flood, including Bagre dam spillage

HIGH
What it is

Flash floods and the annual opening of the Bagre dam in Burkina Faso send water down the White Volta and drown standing rice, sometimes destroying a whole field just before harvest.

Evidence

Bagre spillage recurs almost every year, most recently from 25 August 2025 and late August 2026, inundating rice fields along the White Volta; flooded fields can lose the entire crop201819.

Who it hits

Rice farms along the White Volta and in flood-prone valley bottoms.

How to manage it, and the opening

Plant flood-tolerant (Sub1) varieties, which survive up to about two weeks fully submerged, where seed is available, improve drainage and bunding, and heed early warnings. The opening: flood-tolerant seed, drainage and bunding services, and early-warning and insurance products.

🌾 The Opening: turning each threat into a product or service 🌾
01

Clean, resistant and tolerant seed is the thread through almost every threat. Blast, the virus, the insects, the parasitic weeds, drought and flood are all best answered by the right variety, and research has already produced much of that material. Multiplying and selling it is a business that reduces several risks at once.

02

Crop protection sold with advice. Farmers lose most where they spray by habit or not at all. A supplier that pairs approved, safe inputs with scouting and timing advice captures value that a bare product sale leaves behind.

03

Bird, weed and water services. Netting and deterrents, land levelling and weeding, drainage and bunding, and small-scale irrigation are practical, low-capital services with a large, visible market among smallholders.

04

Drying, storage and insurance against the shocks. Raised-bed and solar dryers, sealed storage and rice-specific index insurance protect both the quantity and the quality of the crop, and are exactly what the climate risk is making essential.

🌾 Key takeaways 🌾
01

Every threat to the rice crop is also a market: the size of each loss is the size of the opening to reduce it, through seed, protection, services, storage and insurance.

02

Blast is the leading disease and rice yellow mottle virus the most stubborn, because the virus has no cure and is best held back by tolerant or resistant varieties, which are released but not yet widely planted.

03

Insects, birds and parasitic weeds each take a large, visible share of the crop, and each is answered by cheap, sellable products and services rather than by expensive machinery.

04

Post-harvest and milling losses destroy both the quantity and the quality of the grain, which is the same quality gap that loses local rice its place on the shelf, seen from the loss side.

05

Climate shocks, drought and Bagre-driven floods, are the largest production risk, alongside the 2026 price crash, and the defences, tolerant varieties, water control and insurance, are ready markets in their own right.

Written for each reader

🌾 Practitioner intelligence 🌾

Hover any card to pause and lift it.

For students

If you are entering rice, the threats are your opening. Learn to recognise blast, the virus, gall midge, bird damage and vampireweed in the field, and learn which variety or practice beats each one, and you become the adviser farmers do not currently have. You can work for a seed or input company, run a scouting and advisory service, or sell and fit bird nets, dryers and sealed storage. The gap to fill: most smallholders cannot name the threat that is cutting their yield and treat it too late or not at all. That knowledge is a service worth paying for. The trap to avoid is selling chemicals alone; the value is in the advice that makes them work.

For entrepreneurs

First move: choose one or two threats where the loss is large and the fix is cheap, resistant seed, bird control, or drying and storage, and build a product-plus-advice offer around them for a defined district. Tie it to the seed and off-take relationships in the varieties and value-chain pillars so you are solving the whole problem. The trap: competing as one more chemical seller in a crowded, low-trust market. The tailwind is that research institutes have resistant and tolerant material ready, and climate shocks are making protection, drying and insurance essential rather than optional.

For investors

Diligence asks: the thesis is that rising losses, especially climate ones, are creating durable demand for resistant seed, protection, drying, storage and insurance. Ask for the specific loss the product reduces and the evidence for it, the route to the farmer, and whether advice is bundled so the product actually works. Structure the money as working capital for a product-and-service business with a clear distribution model, not as a bet on a single input. The risk: smallholder willingness and ability to pay is thin, and adoption is slow, so pair any protection or storage play with finance or with an aggregator that has reason to fund it. Do not price in fast, broad adoption.

For ecosystem actors

The lever is getting the fixes that already exist to the farmers who need them. Ghana's institutes have resistant and tolerant varieties, integrated pest management works, and drying, storage and insurance tools exist; the missing rail is delivery, advice and affordability. Fund and measure the reach of resistant seed, the spread of integrated pest management and improved drying and storage, and the take-up of rice insurance. The measurable outcome is losses falling and the quality of harvested grain rising, which feeds straight into the shelf-quality problem at the heart of this crop. The failure to avoid is leaving tested fixes in stations and pilots while farmers keep taking the full loss.

Footnotes
  1. Pedrozo, R., Osakina, A., Huang, Y., Nicolli, C. P., Wang, L., & Jia, Y. (2025). Status on genetic resistance to rice blast disease in the post-genomic era. Plants, 14(5), Article 807. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14050807↑
  2. Ackaah, F. M., Nyaku, S. T., & Darkwa, E. (2023). Seed-borne fungi associated with diverse rice varieties cultivated in the Western North Region of Ghana. International Journal of Microbiology, 2023, Article 8690464. https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/8690464↑
  3. Omiat, E. G., Asante, M. D., Traoré, V. S. E., Oppong, A., Ifie, B. E., Ofosu, K. A., Aribi, J., Pinel-Galzi, A., Comte, A., Fargette, D., Hébrard, E., Traoré, O., Offei, S. K., Danquah, E. Y., & Poulicard, N. (2023). Genetic diversity and epidemic histories of rice yellow mottle virus in Ghana. Virus Research, 329, Article 199106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.virusres.2023.199106↑
  4. Ayeduvor, S. (2018). Assessing quality attributes that drive preference and consumption of local rice in Ghana (Ghana Strategy Support Program Working Paper 48). International Food Policy Research Institute. https://doi.org/10.2499/1041943683↑
  5. Hope, K. E. (2023, February 14). Farmers laud CRI new rice variety. Ghanaian Times. https://ghanaiantimes.com.gh/farmers-laud-cri-new-rice-variety/↑
  6. Pegalepo, E., Bocco, R., Onaga, G., Nwilene, F., Tamò, M., Togola, A., & Katiyar, S. K. (2025). Sustainable insect pest management options for rice production in sub-Saharan Africa. Insects, 16(11), Article 1175. https://doi.org/10.3390/insects16111175↑
  7. Wiafe, E. D. (2023). An inventory of birds and extent of damage to rice farms at the Kpong Irrigation Dam in the Lower Volta Basin, Ghana. Ghana Journal of Agricultural Science, 58(1), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.4314/gjas.v58i1.1↑
  8. Rodenburg, J., & Bastiaans, L. (2024). Host interactions, pathology, economic impacts and management of the facultative parasitic weed Rhamphicarpa fistulosa. Crop Protection, 181, Article 106688. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2024.106688↑
  9. Rodenburg, J., Cissoko, M., Kayongo, N., Dieng, I., Bisikwa, J., Irakiza, R., Masoka, I., Midega, C. A. O., & Scholes, J. D. (2017). Genetic variation and host-parasite specificity of Striga resistance and tolerance in rice: The need for predictive breeding. New Phytologist, 214(3), 1267-1280. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.14451↑
  10. Appiah, F., Guisse, R., & Dartey, P. K. A. (2011). Post-harvest losses of rice from harvesting to milling in Ghana. Journal of Stored Products and Postharvest Research, 2(4), 64-71. https://academicjournals.org/article/article1379942599_Appiah%20et%20al.pdf↑
  11. African Postharvest Losses Information System. (n.d.). Postharvest rice losses in Ghana: All years [Data set]. Retrieved September 27, 2026, from https://www.aphlis.net/en/data/tables/dry-weight-losses/GH/rice/all-years↑
  12. Amponsah, S. K., Addo, A., Dzisi, K., Asante, B., & Afona, D. (2018). Assessment of rice farmers' knowledge and perception of harvest and postharvest losses in Ghana. Cogent Food & Agriculture, 4(1), Article 1471782. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2018.1471782↑
  13. Ndindeng, S. A., Candia, A., Mapiemfu, D. L., Rakotomalala, V., Danbaba, N., Kulwa, K., Houssou, P., Mohammed, S., Jarju, O. M., Coulibaly, S. S., Baidoo, E. A., Moreira, J., & Futakuchi, K. (2021). Valuation of rice postharvest losses in sub-Saharan Africa and its mitigation strategies. Rice Science, 28(3), 212-216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rsci.2021.04.001↑
  14. Taylor, J., & Beillard, M. J. (2024). Ghana grain and feed update - 2024 (GAIN Report No. GH2024-0015). United States Department of Agriculture, Foreign Agricultural Service. https://apps.fas.usda.gov/newgainapi/api/Report/DownloadReportByFileName?fileName=Ghana+Grain+and+Feed+-+Update+-+2024_Accra_Ghana_GH2024-0015.pdf↑
  15. Ghana's cereal sector faces crisis amidst prolonged drought, losses estimated at US$1.3B. (2024, October 22). Milling Middle East & Africa. https://millingmea.com/ghanas-cereal-sector-faces-crisis-amidst-prolonged-drought-losses-estimated-at-us1-3b/↑
  16. Taylor, J., Beillard, M. J., & Galloway, J. D. (2026). Ghana grain and feed annual - 2026 (GAIN Report No. GH2026-0011). United States Department of Agriculture, Foreign Agricultural Service. https://apps.fas.usda.gov/newgainapi/api/Report/DownloadReportByFileName?fileName=Grain+and+Feed+Annual_Accra_Ghana_GH2026-0011.pdf↑
  17. Jonny-Nuekpe, W., & Danso Abeam, C. (2026, August 24). Gov't weighs lifting grain export ban amid 70,000mt rice glut. The Business & Financial Times. https://thebftonline.com/article/gov-t-weighs-lifting-grain-export-ban-amid-70-000mt-rice-glut↑
  18. Apubeo, A. A. (2025, August 24). Bagre Dam spillage: Farmers and communities gripped with fear. Ghana News Agency. https://gna.org.gh/2025/08/bagre-dam-spillage-farmers-and-communities-gripped-with-fear/↑
  19. Apubeo, A. A. (2026, August 26). Bagre Dam spillage likely to begin Friday, August 28. Ghana News Agency. https://gna.org.gh/2026/08/bagre-dam-spillage-likely-to-begin-friday-august-28/↑
  20. Atanga, R. A., & Tankpa, V. (2021). Climate change, flood disaster risk and food security nexus in Northern Ghana. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 5, Article 706721. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2021.706721↑
  21. Mwakyusa, L., Dixit, S., Herzog, M., Heredia, M. C., Madege, R. R., & Kilasi, N. L. (2023). Flood-tolerant rice for enhanced production and livelihood of smallholder farmers of Africa. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 7, Article 1244460. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2023.1244460↑
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